According to Botvinick's (2007) integrative account, conflict monitoring is aversive because individuals anticipate cognitive demand, whereas the revised reinforcement sensitivity theory (rRST) predicts that conflict processing is aversive because individuals anticipate aversive reinforcement of erroneous responses. Because these accounts give different reasons for the aversive aspects of conflict, we manipulated cognitive demand and the aversive reinforcement as a consequence of wrong choices in a go/no-go task. Thereby, we also aimed to investigate whether individual differences in conflict sensitivity (i.e., in trait anxiety, linked to high sensitivity of the behavioral inhibition system [trait-BIS]) represent the effects of aversive reinforcement and cognitive demand in conflict tasks. We expected that these manipulations would have effects on the frontal N2 component representing activity of the anterior cingulate cortex. Moreover, higher-trait-BIS individuals should be more sensitive than lower-trait-BIS individuals to aversive effects in conflict situations, resulting in a more negative frontal N2 for higher-trait-BIS individuals. In Study 1, with N = 104 students, and Study 2, with N = 47 students, aversive reinforcement was manipulated in three levels (within-subjects factor) and cognitive demand in two levels (between-subjects factor). The behavioral findings from the go/no-go task with noncounterbalanced reinforcement levels (Study 1) could be widely replicated in a task with counterbalanced reinforcement levels (Study 2). The frontal mean no-go N2 amplitude and the frontal no-go N2 dipole captured predicted reinforcement-related variations of conflict monitoring, indicating that the anticipation of aversive reinforcement induces variations in conflict monitoring intensity in frontal brain areas. The aversive nature of conflict was underlined by the more pronounced conflict monitoring in higher- than in lower-trait-BIS individuals.

This study examined the FRN, the P3, and individual differences in trait-BAS and trait-BIS in the context of reward expectation mismatch. A more negative FRN was predicted for higher vs. lower trait-BAS individuals and for higher vs. lower trait-BIS individuals. In the extinction-learning task, participants (N=102) chose between two response buttons to earn a maximum of points. In the acquisition phase, button 1 was continuously rewarded and button 2 was partially rewarded. In the extinction phase, one button was unexpectedly no longer rewarded. The FRN amplitude was more negative for higher vs. lower trait-BAS individuals and for lower vs. higher trait-BIS individuals within the extinction phase. The P3 was more positive in the extinction compared to the acquisition phase. Our results suggest that higher trait-BAS individuals have a more pronounced reward expectation mismatch.

The Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS) is a widely used inventory for the assessment of affect in psychology and other applied sciences. Despite its popularity, the structure of the PANAS is still under debate. On the one hand, there is evidence of the traditional 2-factor model with Positive Affect (PA) and Negative Affect (NA) as uncorrelated factors. On the other hand, a more complex structure of the PANAS has been discussed. To shed further light on the core dimensions of the PANAS, 2 studies investigated the structure of the PANAS in 2 German samples (N = 354 and N = 364, respectively) by means of confirmatory factor analysis. The factor analysis results of Study 1 for a traitlike time frame instruction suggested a suboptimal model fit for the uncorrelated 2-factor model and the 3-factor model with PA, Afraid, and Upset as factors, whereas a superior model fit occurred for a bifactor model with traitlike PA, NA, and a general 3rd factor named Affective Polarity. In Study 2, the bifactor model was replicated for a statelike PANAS time frame instruction and evidence of criterion validity was provided for PA, NA, and Affective Polarity factors in 2 sex offender subgroups and in a community sample. With Affective Polarity, we introduce an affect dimension that captures additional variance beyond PA and NA. Because of the adjectives with relevant loadings on Affective Polarity, this general factor represents an individual's orientation toward approach and withdrawal, respectively.

Previous research suggests that patterns of comorbidity of a limited number of anxiety, depressive, substance use and antisocial personality (ASP) disorders among adults are best reflected by a hierarchical three-factor structure with two correlated factors ('anxious-misery' and 'fear') that are summarized in a second-order 'internalizing' factor and one 'externalizing' factor. It has not been examined whether this structure is developmentally stable and robust against additions of more diagnoses. Using data from a prospective-longitudinal community study of adolescents and young adults we re-evaluate the three-factor model originally proposed by Krueger (Archives of General Psychiatry, 1999; 56, 921-926). Using confirmatory factor analysis with identical conventions as in Krueger's original work we found that the three factor model did not fit robustly across age or a wider range of diagnoses. Using explanatory factor analysis we examined alternative structures. We found various clinically meaningful patterns with good fit that go substantially beyond the original three-factor structure. However, again, there is little consistency in findings when different age groups or different diagnoses are considered. Our findings suggest that psychopathology cannot be reduced to any simple structure.

Previous research suggests that patterns of comorbidity of common mental disorders among adults are best reflected by a hierarchical three-factor structure with two correlated factors ('anxious-misery' and 'fear') summarized in a second-order 'internalizing' factor and one 'externalizing' factor. This three-factor structure has not been examined yet in a sample of adolescents and young adults.A representative sample of 3021 adolescents and young adults (baseline age 14-24) were prospectively followed over 10 years. Mental disorders were assessed according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV) by using the standardized Munich Composite International Diagnostic Interview. Ten mental disorders (major depressive episode, dysthymia, generalized anxiety disorder, social phobia, specific phobia, agoraphobia, panic disorder, alcohol dependence, drug dependence, antisocial personality) were fitted to a series of Confirmatory Factor Analysis models using:(1) 12-month data, and (2) lifetime data from a person-year data set.The three-factor model showed good fit to the observed data in our sample both when 12-month diagnoses and lifetime-to-date diagnoses from a person-year data file were used; yet the higher-order 'internalizing' factor summarizing 'anxious misery' and 'fear' had to be omitted.The three-factor model could be replicated in a sample of adolescents and young adults with the exception that the second-order 'internalizing' factor was not consistent with the data. Further research is necessary to provide more complete insight into the structure of mental disorders by examining the stability of the structure of mental disorders in different developmental stages (ages) and by using a more extensive set of mental disorders.

The present paper introduces model-related (MR) factor score predictors, which reflect specific aspects of confirmatory factor models. The development is mainly based on Schönemann and Steiger's regression score components, but it can also be applied to the factor score coefficients. It is shown that the rotation of factor score predictors has no impact on the covariance matrix reproduced from the corresponding regression component patterns. Thus, regression score components or factor score coefficients can be rotated in order to obtain the required properties. This idea is the basis for MR factor score predictors, which are computed by means of a partial Procrustes rotation towards a target pattern representing the interesting properties of a confirmatory factor model. Two examples demonstrate the construction of MR factor score predictors reflecting specific constraints of a factor model.

J. A. Gray's Reinforcement Sensitivity Theory (RST) has produced a wealth of quasi-experimental studies in more than 35 years of research on personality and reinforcement sensitivity. The present meta-analysis builds on this literature by investigating RST in conflict and nonconflict reinforcement tasks in humans. Based on random-effects meta-analysis, we confirmed RST predictions of performance parameters (e.g., number of responses, reaction time) in reinforcement tasks for impulsivity- and anxiety-related traits. In studies on anxiety-related traits, the effect size variance was smaller for conflict tasks than for nonconflict tasks. A larger mean effect size and a larger variability of effect sizes were found for conflict compared to nonconflict tasks in studies on impulsivity-related traits. Our results suggest that problems with RST confirmation in reinforcement tasks are at least partly caused by insufficient statistical power of primary studies, and thus, encourage future research on RST.

Objective: To explore changes for the first time in neural processing due to effective cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) after severe motor vehicle accidents. Recent studies have highlighted the role of right hemisphere activation during withdrawal-related emotions (e.g., anxiety). There has been little research on changes in brain function due to cognitive-behavioral interventions in anxiety disorders. Method: We conducted a randomized, controlled trial comparing cognitive-behavioral therapy with an assessment-only Wait-list condition. Spontaneous electroencephalographic activity was recorded from left and right anterior and posterior regions in participants with PTSD/subsyndromal PTSD receiving CBT (n = 17) before and after a CBT program. Wait-list controls (n = 18) were investigated before and after 3 months. Results: At the pretreatment assessment, a pattern of increased right-sided activation during exposure to a trauma-related picture (relative to a neutral picture) was observed in both CBT and Wait-list participants. At posttreatment, there was a greater reduction of right anterior activation in the CBT group as compared with Wait-list controls. Across both groups, PTSD symptom reduction was significantly positively correlated with a decrease in right anterior activation to the trauma stimulus. Conclusions: These findings suggest that effective CBT treatment of PTSD may be accompanied by adaptive changes in asymmetrical brain function. Future studies are needed to confirm our findings.

This study examined whether patients with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) related to motor vehicle accidents (MVAs) would show an abnormal pattern of electroencephalographic (EEG) alpha asymmetries, which has been proposed for particular types of anxiety. Patients with PTSD (n = 22) or subsyndromal PTSD (n = 21), traumatized controls without PTSD (non-PTSD with MVA; n = 21), and healthy controls without MVA (n = 23) underwent measurement of EEG activity during baseline and exposure to a neutral, a positive, a negative, and an accident-related picture. Differences in brain asymmetry between groups were observed only during exposure to trauma-related material. PTSD and subsyndromal PTSD patients showed a pattern of enhanced right anterior and posterior activation, whereas non-PTSD with MVA participants showed the opposite pattern. Furthermore, posterior asymmetry in nontraumatized healthy controls varied with gender, with female participants showing a pattern of higher right posterior activation. The results support the hypothesis that symptomatic MVA survivors are characterized by a pattern of right hemisphere activation that is associated with anxious arousal and symptoms of PTSD during processing of trauma-specific information.((c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).

This study investigates an extension of H.J. Eysenck's [Eysenck, H.J., 1967. The Biological Basis of Personality. Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, IL] arousal theory of extraversion, incorporating an effort system as a control system for different aspects of arousal. Extraverts were expected to have lower levels of reticocortical arousal than introverts, to invest more effort, and to have lower task performance in a monotonous vigilance task. In a 40-min vigilance task, participants had to react to the shorter of two 1 kHz tones presented binaurally at an event rate of 200 per 10 min. Spontaneous EEG, event-related potential, and performance data of 40 extremely introverted and 41 extremely extraverted students were available for statistical analysis. A tendency for lower arousal levels of extraverts (alpha 2 band), the expected higher effort investment (P300) and a lower performance (hits) of extraverts were found.