Comparative analysis of multiple genomes in a phylogenetic framework dramatically improves the precision and sensitivity of evolutionary inference, producing more robust results than single-genome analyses can provide. The genomes of 12 Drosophila species, ten of which are presented here for the first time (sechellia, simulans, yakuba, erecta, ananassae, persimilis, willistoni, mojavensis, virilis and grimshawi), illustrate how rates and patterns of sequence divergence across taxa can illuminate evolutionary processes on a genomic scale. These genome sequences augment the formidable genetic tools that have made Drosophila melanogaster a pre-eminent model for animal genetics, and will further catalyse fundamental research on mechanisms of development, cell biology, genetics, disease, neurobiology, behaviour, physiology and evolution. Despite remarkable similarities among these Drosophila species, we identified many putatively non-neutral changes in protein-coding genes, non-coding RNA genes, and cis-regulatory regions. These may prove to underlie differences in the ecology and behaviour of these diverse species.

This paper reports on comparative analysis of health planning and its relationship with health care reform in three countries, Eritrea, Mozambique and Zimbabwe. The research examined strategic planning in each country focusing in particular on its role in developing health sector reforms. The paper analyses the processes for strategic planning, the values that underpin the planning systems, and issues related to resources for planning processes. The resultant content of strategic plans is assessed and not seen to have driven the development of reforms; whilst each country had adopted strategic planning systems, in all three countries a more complex interplay of forces, including influences outside both the health sector and the country, had been critical forces behind the sectoral changes experienced over the previous decade. The key roles of different actors in developing the plans and reforms are also assessed. The paper concludes that a number of different conceptions of strategic planning exist and will depend on the particular context within which the heatlh system is placed. Whilst similarities were discovered between strategic planning systems in the three countries, there are also key differences in terms of formality, timeframes, structures and degrees of inclusiveness. No clear leadership role for strategic planning in terms of health sector reforms was discovered. Planning appears in the three countries to be more operational than strategic. Copyright (c) 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

We report a high-quality draft of the genome sequence of the grey, short-tailed opossum (Monodelphis domestica). As the first metatherian ('marsupial') species to be sequenced, the opossum provides a unique perspective on the organization and evolution of mammalian genomes. Distinctive features of the opossum chromosomes provide support for recent theories about genome evolution and function, including a strong influence of biased gene conversion on nucleotide sequence composition, and a relationship between chromosomal characteristics and X chromosome inactivation. Comparison of opossum and eutherian genomes also reveals a sharp difference in evolutionary innovation between protein-coding and non-coding functional elements. True innovation in protein-coding genes seems to be relatively rare, with lineage-specific differences being largely due to diversification and rapid turnover in gene families involved in environmental interactions. In contrast, about 20% of eutherian conserved non-coding elements (CNEs) are recent inventions that postdate the divergence of Eutheria and Metatheria. A substantial proportion of these eutherian-specific CNEs arose from sequence inserted by transposable elements, pointing to transposons as a major creative force in the evolution of mammalian gene regulation.

Here we report a high-quality draft genome sequence of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), together with a dense map of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across breeds. The dog is of particular interest because it provides important evolutionary information and because existing breeds show great phenotypic diversity for morphological, physiological and behavioural traits. We use sequence comparison with the primate and rodent lineages to shed light on the structure and evolution of genomes and genes. Notably, the majority of the most highly conserved non-coding sequences in mammalian genomes are clustered near a small subset of genes with important roles in development. Analysis of SNPs reveals long-range haplotypes across the entire dog genome, and defines the nature of genetic diversity within and across breeds. The current SNP map now makes it possible for genome-wide association studies to identify genes responsible for diseases and traits, with important consequences for human and companion animal health.

Plastic surgical gloves reprocessed at the Kenyatta National Hospital (KNH) were tested for microbiological and physical quality, using standard, disposable, factory sterilised surgical gloves as reference. The microbiological tests were carried out using slightly modified British Pharmacopoeia method. The tests to check on the physical integrity of the gloves were designed in our laboratories. A total of 48 pairs of each group were tested. 41.67% of the reprocessed gloves and 12.5% of the reference glove failed sterility test, whereas 47.9% of the former and 0% of the latter had physical defects. These results show significant difference in the microbiological and physical quality of the reprocessed and reference gloves. The reprocessing of plastic surgical gloves is therefore, potentially dangerous and it is strongly recommended that it is discontinued at all levels of health-care institutions.

The pharmacokinetics of albendazole were investigated in five children who were hospitalized at the Kenyatta National Hospital for the treatment of hydatid disease. Unchanged albendazole was below detectable level in plasma. The major metabolite present was albendazole sulphoxide. In one of the patients, the concentration of albendazole sulphone in plasma was significantly high, whereas in the other four children, only trace amounts were detected. Maximum concentrations of albendazole sulphoxide in these five children were variable and generally higher than those reported in adults by other workers. Other pharmacokinetic parameters were comparable to those found in other studies.

Ambulatory rural school children in the Mombasa area with P. falciparum parasitaemia were examined and randomly assigned to treatment with one of three second-line antimalarials--amodiaquine, pyrimethamine/sulphadoxine (P/SD) and pyrimethamine/sulfalene (P/SL). Clinical signs and parasitaemia were followed daily for the first week and on days 14 and 28. WHO Mark II schizont inhibition tests were performed for all the above 3 drugs and chloroquine. The total number of cases was 73. The mean parasite density was 142.1 +/- 207; 102.7 +/- 166; 82.74 +/- 93 parasites per 300 WBC for amodiaquine, P/SD, and P/SL, respectively. In vitro tests showed a chloroquine resistance rate of 60% and no resistance to all of the second line drugs. Also, all children treated successfully cleared their parasitaemia with mean clearance rates of 2.05 +/- 0.57; 1.86 +/- 0.47; 2.05 +/- 0.50 days for amodiaquine, P/SD and P/SL, respectively. Even though, no difference in the effectiveness between the second line drugs used was found, reinfection rates as depicted by day 28 parasitaemia differed--amodiaquine 16%; P/SD 0%; and P/SL4.35%. This difference could be attributed to the difference in the pharmacokinetic properties of the drugs.

Seventeen brands of antacid products available on the Kenya market were investigated for their acid neutralising capacity and sodium content. Thirteen tablet products gave neutralising capacity per tablet of between 4.7 to 14.12 mMol hydrochloric acid. The neutralising capacities for the suspensions ranged between 11.97 to 34.32 mMol hydrochloric acid for 10ml suspension. The lowest neutralising capacities were obtained for products based on compound magnesium trisilicate and higher capacities for those containing magaldrate, or magnesium hydroxide or magnesium carbonate in combination with other ingredients. The fastest rate of neutralization was obtained with preparations containing carbonates and the lowest by compound magnesium trisilicate. The sodium content for the preparations was between < 0.001 mEq to 0.732 mEq sodium per minimum recommended dose. The study shows a high degree of variation in both the acid neutralising capacities and the sodium content of the different brands investigated.

Eight brands of antacid tablets commonly available in the private market in Kenya were subjected to in-vitro tests for neutralizing capacity. The neutralizing capacity per gram and per tablet of the products was compared. The neutralizing capacity in millilitres of 0.1 M HC1 per gram ranged from 103.10 for Gelusil to 225.13 for Maalox, with others ranging between +/- 18.1% and -12% about the average. The neutralizing capacity per tablet ranged from 64.90 ml for Magnesium trisilicate Co tablets B.P. to 263.15 ml for Maalox, with the others ranging between +/- 24.9% and -33.1% about the average. This shows high variation in the neutralizing capacities of the different brands available especially in relations to the neutralizing capacities per tablet due to the high variation in the tablet weight.