The alpha-aminoadipate (AAA) pathway of lysine biosynthesis is modulated at the transcriptional and biochemical levels by feedback inhibition. The first enzyme in the AAA pathway, homocitrate synthase (HCS), is the target of the feedback regulation and is strongly inhibited by L-lysine. Here we report the structure of Schizosaccharomyces pombe HCS (SpHCS) in complex with L-lysine. The structure illustrates that the amino acid directly competes with the substrate 2-oxoglutarate (2-OG) for binding within the active site of HCS. Differential recognition of the substrate and inhibitor is achieved via a switch position within the (alpha/beta)8 TIM barrel of the enzyme that can distinguish between the C5-carboxylate group of 2-OG and the epsilon-ammonium group of L-lysine. In vitro and in vivo assays demonstrate that mutations of the switch residues which interact with the L-lysine epsilon-ammonium group abrogate feedback inhibition, as do substitutions of residues within the C-terminal domain that were identified in a previous study of L-lysine insensitive HCS mutants in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Together, these results yield new insights into the mechanism of feedback regulation of an enzyme central to lysine biosynthesis.

Homocitrate synthase (HCS) catalyzes the first and committed step in lysine biosynthesis in many fungi and certain archaea and is a potential target for antifungal drugs. Here we report the crystal structure of the HCS apoenzyme from Schizosaccharomyces pombe and two distinct structures of the enzyme in complex with the substrate 2-oxoglutarate (2- OG). The structures reveal that HCS forms an intertwined homodimer stabilized by domainswapping between the N- and C-terminal domains of each monomer. The N-terminal catalytic domain is comprised of a TIM barrel fold in which 2-OG binds via hydrogen bonds and coordination to the active site divalent metal ion, whereas the C-terminal domain is composed of mixed alpha/beta-topology. In the structures of the HCS apoenzyme and one of the 2-OG binary complexes, a lid motif from the C-terminal domain occludes the entrance to the active site of the neighboring monomer, whereas in the second 2-OG complex, the lid is disordered, suggesting that it regulates substrate access to the active site through its apparent flexibility. Mutations of the active site residues involved in 2-OG binding or implicated in acid-base catalysis impair or abolish activity in vitro and in vivo. Together, these results yield new insights into the structure and catalytic mechanism of HCSs and furnish a platform for developing HCSselective inhibitors.

The cellular role of the Ada2 co-activator is currently understood in the context of the SAGA histone acetyltransferase (HAT) complex, where it increases the HAT activity of Gcn5 and interacts with transcriptional activators. Here we report a new function for Ada2 in promoting transcriptional silencing at telomeres and rDNA. This silencing function is the first characterized role for Ada2 distinct from Gcn5. Ada2 binds telomeric chromatin and the silencing protein Sir2 in vivo. Loss of ADA2 causes spreading of Sir2 and Sir3 into subtelomeric regions and decreased histone H4 K16 acetylation. This previously uncharacterized boundary activity of Ada2 is functionally similar to, but mechanistically distinct from, that of the MYST family HAT Sas2. Mounting evidence in the literature indicates that boundary activities create chromosomal domains important for regulating gene expression in response to environmental changes. Consistent with this, we show that upon nutritional changes, Ada2 occupancy increases at a subtelomeric region proximal to a SAGA-inducible gene and causes derepression of a silenced telomeric reporter gene. Thus, Ada2, likely in the context of SAGA, is positioned at chromosomal termini to participate in both transcriptional repression and activation in response to nutrient signaling.

Histone modifications that regulate chromatin-dependent processes are catalyzed by multi-subunit complexes. These can function in both targeting activities to specific genes and in regulating genome-wide levels of modifications. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Esa1 and Rpd3 have opposing enzymatic activities and are catalytic subunits of multiple chromatin modifying complexes with key roles in processes such as transcriptional regulation and DNA repair. Esa1 is an essential histone acetyltransferase that belongs to the highly conserved MYST family. This study presents evidence that the yeast histone deacetylase gene, RPD3, when deleted, suppressed esa1 conditional mutant phenotypes. Deletion of RPD3 reversed rDNA and telomeric silencing defects and restored global H4 acetylation levels, in addition to rescuing the growth defect of a temperature-sensitive esa1 mutant. This functional genetic interaction between ESA1 and RPD3 was mediated through the Rpd3L complex. The suppression of esa1's growth defect by disruption of Rpd3L was dependent on lysine 12 of histone H4. We propose a model whereby Esa1 and Rpd3L act coordinately to control the acetylation of H4 lysine 12 to regulate transcription, thereby emphasizing the importance of dynamic acetylation and deacetylation of this particular histone residue in maintaining cell viability.

Transcriptional silencing is a crucial process that is mediated through chromatin structure. The histone deacetylase Sir2 silences genomic regions that include telomeres, ribosomal DNA (rDNA) and the cryptic mating-type loci. Here, we report an unsuspected role for the enzyme Gas1 in locus-specific transcriptional silencing. GAS1 encodes a beta-1,3-glucanosyltransferase previously characterized for its role in cell wall biogenesis. In gas1 mutants, telomeric silencing is defective and rDNA silencing is enhanced. We show that the catalytic activity of Gas1 is required for normal silencing, and that Gas1's role in silencing is distinct from its role in cell wall biogenesis. Established hallmarks of silent chromatin, such as Sir2 and Sir3 binding, H4K16 deacetylation, and H3K56 deacetylation, appear unaffected in gas1 mutants. Thus, another event required for telomeric silencing must be influenced by GAS1. Because the catalytic activity of Gas1 is required for telomeric silencing, Gas1 localizes to the nuclear periphery, and Gas1 and Sir2 physically interact, we propose a model in which carbohydrate modification of chromatin components provides a new regulatory element that may be critical for chromatin function but which is virtually unexplored in the current landscape of chromatin analysis.

Transcription factors are most commonly thought of as proteins that regulate expression of specific genes, independently of the order of those genes along the chromosome. By screening genome-wide chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP) profiles in yeast, we find that more than 10% of DNA-binding transcription factors concentrate at the subtelomeric regions near to chromosome ends. None of the proteins identified were previously implicated in regulation at telomeres, yet genomic and proteomic studies reveal that a subset of factors show many interactions with established telomere binding complexes. For many factors, the subtelomeric binding pattern is dynamic and undergoes flux toward or away from the telomere as physiological conditions shift. We find that subtelomeric binding is dependent on environmental conditions and correlates with the induction of gene expression in response to stress. Taken together, these results underscore the importance of genome structure in understanding the regulatory dynamics of transcriptional networks.

BACKGROUND: Distal interactions between discrete elements of an enzyme are critical for communication and ultimately for regulation. However, identifying the components of such interactions has remained elusive due to the delicate nature of these contacts. Protein kinases are a prime example of an enzyme with multiple regulatory sites that are spatially separate, yet communicate extensively for tight regulation of activity. Kinase misregulation has been directly linked to a variety of cancers, underscoring the necessity for understanding intramolecular kinase regulation. METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: A genetic screen was developed to identify suppressor mutations that restored catalytic activity in vivo from two kinase-dead Protein Kinase A mutants in S. cerevisiae. The residues defined by the suppressors provide new insights into kinase regulation. Many of the acquired mutations were distal to the nucleotide binding pocket, highlighting the relationship of spatially dispersed residues in regulation. CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE: The suppressor residues provide new insights into kinase regulation, including allosteric effects on catalytic elements and altered protein-protein interactions. The suppressor mutations identified in this study also share overlap with mutations identified from an identical screen in the yeast PKA homolog Tpk2, demonstrating functional conservation for some residues. Some mutations were independently isolated several times at the same sites. These sites are in agreement with sites previously identified from multiple cancer data sets as areas where acquired somatic mutations led to cancer progression and drug resistance. This method provides a valuable tool for identifying residues involved in kinase activity and for studying kinase misregulation in disease states.

The MYST family of lysine acetyltransferases has been intensely studied because of its broad conservation and biological significance. In humans, there are multiple correlations between the enzymes and development and disease. In model organisms, genetic and biochemical studies have been particularly productive because of mechanistic insights they provide in defining substrate specificity, the complexes through which the enzymes function, and the sites of their activity within the genome. Established and emerging data from yeast reveal roles for the three MYST enzymes in diverse chromosomal functions. In particular, recent studies help explain how MYST complexes coordinate with other modifiers, the histone variant H2A.Z, and remodeling complexes to demarcate silent and active chromosomal domains, facilitate transcription, and enable repair of DNA damage.

The broadly conserved Sir2 NAD(+)-dependent deacetylase is required for chromatin silencing. Here we report the discovery of physical and functional links between Sir2 and Slx5 (Hex3), a RING domain protein and subunit of the Slx5/8 complex, which is a ubiquitin E3 ligase that targets sumoylated proteins. Slx5 interacted with Sir2 by two-hybrid and GST-binding assays, and was found to promote silencing of genes at telomeric or rDNA loci. However, deletion of SLX5 had no detectable effect on distribution of silent chromatin components, and only slightly altered deacetylation of histone H4 lysine 16 at the telomere. In vivo assays indicated that Sir2-dependent silencing was functionally intact in the absence of Slx5. Although no previous reports suggest that Sir2 contributes to fitness of yeast populations, we found that Sir2 was required for maximal growth in slx5Delta mutant cells. A similar requirement was observed for mutants of the SUMO isopeptidase, Ulp2/Smt4. The contribution of Sir2 to optimal growth was not due to known Sir2 roles in mating-type determination or rDNA maintenance, but was connected to a role of sumoylation in transcriptional silencing. These results indicate that Sir2 and Slx5 jointly contribute to transcriptional silencing and robust cellular growth.