The chemical composition and functional properties of ungerminated and germinated seeds of four advanced lines of cowpeas (IT81D-699, IT82E-18, IT84S-2246-4 and TVx 3236) were investigated. Ungerminated seeds contained 20.1 to 25.8% crude protein, 2.0 to 2.2% lipid, 115.1 to 210.0 mg phytic acid/100 g and 8.9 to 9.6 mg iron/100 g. The polyphenol contents of the brown- and cream-colored beans were similar (192.0 to 196.0 mg/100 g) but were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than the amount (99.8 mg/100 g) found in the white beans. Germination increased the crude protein content, total phosphorus content, nitrogen solubility, fat absorption capacity and foam capacity but decreased ether extract, polyphenol and phytic acid contents, water absorption capacity, bulk density and foam stability of all cowpea lines. Incorporation of up to 0.2 M NaCl improved foam volume. Ungerminated seeds had high water (2.3-3.2 g/g) absorption capacities, while germinated seeds had high fat (3.1-3.6 g/g) absorption capacities. TVx 3236 and IT81D-699 might be selected for combining such characteristics as high crude protein, low phytic acid content and good foaming properties into a single cowpea line through breeding.

The effects of dry heat (roasting) and moist heat (boiling) on in vitro protein digestibility, protein fractions and other chemical properties of African breadfruit (Treculia africana Decne) seed that affect their utilization as a source of human food were investigated. Chemical analyses showed that the crude protein and fat contents of the unprocessed (raw) seeds were 20. 1% and 13.7%, respectively. The level of phytic acid in the raw seed (1.19 mg/g) was lower than the levels found in some commonly consumed pulses in Nigeria. Albumin and globulin protein fractions were found to be the major seed proteins of African breadfruit seed, constituting 67.8% of the total protein of the raw seed. There were no significant (p > 0.05) differences between crude protein, ash and fat contents of the raw and heat processed samples. Boiling proved more effective than roasting for improving protein digestibility and for reducing the levels of trypsin inhibitor, phytic acid and polyphenols of the samples. The complete removal of these antinutrients, however, would require a more severe heat treatment of the seed, which in turn would profoundly reduce the nutritional value and availability of proteins, as demonstrated by the low values obtained for in vitro protein digestibility, protein fractions and protein extractability.

Sil-estrus implants, Veramix sponges and PGF2alpha were successfully used to synchronize estrus in normocyclic West African dwarf sheep. The intervals from end of treatment to onset of observable estrus in the three groups of treatment were 42.33+/-1.99, 77.67+/-15.20 and 41.62+/-2.23 h respectively, for Sil-estrus, Veramix sponges and PGF2alpha (P>0.05). Of all the treated sheep, 100% of those treated with Sil-estrus and PGF2alpha and 66.67% of the sheep treated with Veramix sponges were in estrus within 48 h post treatment. Neither the duration of standing estrus nor the succeeding estrus cycle length was significantly affected by the treatment. These results indicate that progestogens and prostaglandin F2alpha can be usefully employed in the management of reproduction of West African dwarf sheep.

Three promising new improved lines of lima beans (Tpl 1B, Tpl 7A and Tpl 175A) were evaluated for physicochemical properties and cooking quality. The beans varied in seed dimensions and weights with Tpl 1B and Tpl 7A having smaller seed volume than Tpl 175A. Seed coat percentages, leached solids and swelling capacities were within a range of 10.2-19.6%(w/w), 0.44-0.92 g/100 g and 94.0-121.0 g/100 g dry bean, respectively. Cooking times varied between 62 and 81 min without soaking and were reduced by about 34% following a presoaking treatment in water for 12 h at room temperature (28 +/- 1 degrees C). Small seeds absorbed higher amounts of water during soaking and required more cooking time than larger seeds. No significant (p > 0.05) difference in cooked texture was found between unsoaked beans cooked for 50 min and soaked beans cooked for 30 min, suggesting that cooking times and cooked texture for all lines were improved through soaking.

The effect of different extraction methods on the quality of crude palm oil processed using traditional (local) and mechanical methods in selected areas of Rivers and Bayelsa States and their storage stability were investigated. Certain quality determining parameters such as free fatty acids (FFA), peroxide value (PV), saponification value (SV), moisture, impurities and volatile matter (MIV) content were determined prior to and after storage for three months. The free fatty acids (FFA) ranged from 7 to 19 percent, peroxide value (PV) ranged from 3 mEq/kg to 6 mEq/kg and moisture, impurity and volatile matter (MIV) ranged from 0.21 to 0.64 percent for locally extracted crude palm oil samples and mechanically extracted crude palm oil samples. There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the FFA of samples A and E before and after storage for 3 months. Also two of the locally extracted crude samples (A and E) stored better while one of the samples (D) showed a high level of deterioration as shown in its high levels of FFA, PV and IV values. Samples A and E resulted in a better quality of oil in terms of FFA (av. 7.25%) and PV (av. 4.5 meg/kg) when compared to the mechanically extracted one (sample C) with FFA (10.0%) and PV (5.78 mEq/kg). However, all the locally and mechanically extracted crude palm oil samples could not meet the industrial and international standard quality for crude palm with FFA (2-5%) and PV (2-3.5 mEq/kg). Among the three different storage containers used under different storage conditions, plastic containers (PC) resulted in a better storage stability of the crude palm oils in terms of FFA, SV, and IV than transparent bottles stored on shelves (TBS) and amber-colored bottles stored on the bare floor (BPF).

In vitro protein digestibility, chemical composition and selected functional properties of flours and protein concentrates prepared from raw, fermented and germinated fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis Hook) seeds were studied. Protein concentrates prepared by an alkaline extraction process had increased crude protein contents (61.5-70.8%) compared to flour samples (46.4-52.7%). The yields of protein concentrates ranged from 24.5% to 29.4% while values for protein recoveries varied between 64.8% and 65.2%. Protein concentrates also had increased foam volume and decreased foam stability (100% decrease over a 2 h period), compared to flour samples. Fermentation and germination were observed to significantly (p < 0.05) lower polyphenol and phytic acid contents, but increased protein digestibility of fluted pumpkin seed flours and concentrates. Both raw flour and concentrate were significantly (p < 0.05) higher in water absorption capacity than germinated or fermented flours and concentrates. Protein concentrates had comparatively better fat absorption properties than the flour samples. Hence protein concentrates may prove to have useful applications in ground meat formulations.

The effect of 7 days of germination on levels of nitrogenous and other nutrition related parameters, protein fractions and in vitro protein digestibility of fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) seed was studied. The non-protein nitrogen gradually increased and the protein nitrogen content decreased during germination. Albumin and globulin fractions were found to be the major seed proteins of fluted pumpkin seeds, constituting about 58.6% of the total protein of the ungerminated (raw) seeds. The protein fractions, albumin and glutelin, were observed to increase by 61.5% and 57.0%, respectively, while a 54.6% decrease was noted in the prolamine fraction. The globulin fraction increased at the beginning of germination but decreased at the end. Germination significantly (p< or =0.05) increased the crude protein, nitrogen solubility and in vitro protein digestibility but decreased the fat, phytic acid and polyphenol contents of the seeds.

Chemical and functional properties of unprocessed (raw) and locally processed seeds of Brachystegia eurycoma, Detarium microcarpum and Mucuna sloanei that affect their utilization as sources of human food were investigated. The seeds, which are underutilized food sources in Nigeria, were subjected to local processing methods which included roasting, boiling, dehulling/shelling, soaking and the changes in composition and functional properties were estimated. Chemical analyses showed that the crude protein contents of the raw seeds ranged from 12.2 to 23.2%; fat varied from 4.9 to 12.0%. The level of phytic acid in the raw seeds (192.4-215 mg/100 g) was observed to be lower than the levels found in some commonly consumed pulses in Nigeria. There were no significant differences (p > 0.05) between crude protein contents and the least gelation concentrations of the raw and processed samples, but processing (roasting, boiling, dehulling and soaking) significantly (p = 0.011) improved in vitro protein digestibility, water and fat absorption capacity and decreased the bulk density, nitrogen solubility and the phytic acid and polyphenol contents of the samples. Processed samples had high water (3.4-3.8 g/g) and fat (1.8-2.1 g/g) absorption capacities and hence may be useful as functional agents in fabricated foods such as bakery products and ground meat formulations.

The seeds of three promising advanced lines of soybeans (TGx 923-2EN, TGx 1019-2EN and TGx 1497-1D) which were part of a larger collection evaluated in agronomic field trials in Nigeria were selected for characterization of physicochemical properties, chemical composition, water absorption, cooking time and cooked texture as a function of soaking and cooking. Seed density, leached solids, swelling capacity and seed coat percentage were within a range of 1.15 to 1.26 g per ml, 1.00 to 1.26 g per 100 g, 80.25 to 84.35 g per 100 g and 6.6 to 10.1% w/w of dry beans, respectively. The total polyphenol content of the cream colored beans was similar (0.75 to 0.76 mg/g) but higher than the amount (0.60 mg/g) found in the white beans. Cooking times varied between 71 and 96 min without soaking and were reduced by about 32.0% following a presoaking treatment in water for 12 hours at room temperature (28 +/- 1 degrees C). Small seeds absorbed higher amounts of water during soaking and required less cooking time than larger seeds. Unsoaked beans required 40 min of cooking to achieve the same degree of cooked texture as the soaked beans cooked for 20 min, suggesting that cooking times and cooked texture for all lines were improved through soaking.

Reduction of various antinutritional factors in cereal brans by different treatments (microwave heating, dry heating and wet heating) were studied. There was significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) in reduction of antinutritional factors of treated cereal brans except for dry heating at low temperature. Microwave heating at 2450 MHz for 2.5 min resulted in 53.85%, 57.21%, 65.00% and 100% reduction in phytic acid, polyphenols, oxalates and saponins, respectively. Wet heating resulted in maximum reduction in trypsin inhibitor activity (83.07%) at 110 °C for 25 min. Processing treatment resulted in increase in bulk density and slight darkening of the brans. The most effective method of detoxifying most of the toxicants was microwave heating for 2.5 min, and therefore it could be exploited for making treated brans an ideal source for potential food application.

Seeking cheap, sustainable protein sources greatly facilitate in alleviating the dependence on expensive animal-based protein in many developing countries. Caragana Korshinskii Kom offers a good alternative feedstock due to its high-content of protein, low fertilizer and pesticide requirements, excellent stress (high salty and less water) tolerance and wide adaptability etc. The functional properties of C. Korshinskii Kom. protein isolates by three different extraction methods were investigated. The extraction processes greatly influenced the physiological characteristics of protein isolates. C. Korshinskii Kom. protein isolates by traditional alkaline extraction (Al-CPI) exhibited well performance on emulsifying activity index, oil and water absorption capacity and foaming property compared with A-CPI (C. Korshinskii Kom. protein isolates by acetone precipitation method) and TCA-CPI (C. Korshinskii Kom. protein isolates by trichloroacetic acid-acetone precipitation). The water- and oil- adsorption capacities of Al-CPI were observed at 4.99 and 3.45 g/g, respectively, even much higher than those of SPI (3.94 and 2.95 g/g, respectively). The highest foaming capacity was observed by Al-CPI at 185.0%, followed by A-CPI (177.5%), TCA-CPI (142.5%) and SPI (141.9%), respectively. It has to be noted that A-CPI showed well solubility at acidic pH and excellent in-vitro digestibility. After sequential pepsin-trypsin digestion, the %N release of A-CPI reached up to 83.7%, which was 1.63 times of Al-CPI (51.2%), 1.19 times of TCA-CPI (70.1%), and slightly higher than that of the commercial SPI (82.5%). These results indicate that C. Korshinskii Kom. holds a great potential for the application of in animal feed and food additive industry.

Virgin coconut oil (VCO) has been gaining popularity in recent times. During its production, byproducts such as coconut skim milk and insoluble protein are obtained which are underutilized or thrown away to the environment at present. This study deals with utilization of these byproducts to obtain a value-added product, namely, coconut protein powder. When coconut milk was subjected to centrifugation, three phases, namely, fat phase (coconut cream), aqueous phase (coconut skim milk), and solid phase (insoluble protein) were obtained. The coconut skim milk and insoluble protein were mixed and homogenized before spray drying to obtain a dehydrated protein powder. The proximate analysis of the powder showed high protein content (33 % w/w) and low fat content (3 % w/w). Protein solubility was studied as a function of pH and ionic content of solvent. Functional properties such as water hydration capacity, fat absorption capacity, emulsifying properties, wettability, and dispersibility of coconut protein powder were evaluated along with morphological characterization, polyphenol content, and color analysis. Coconut protein powder has shown to have good emulsifying properties and hence has potential to find applications in emulsified foods. Sensory analysis showed high overall quality of the product, indicating that coconut protein powder could be a useful food ingredient.

In this study, composition, structure and the functional properties of protein concentrate (WPC) and protein isolate (WPI) produced from defatted walnut flour (DFWF) were investigated. The results showed that the composition and structure of walnut protein concentrate (WPC) and walnut protein isolate (WPI) were significantly different. The molecular weight distribution of WPI was uniform and the protein composition of DFWF and WPC was complex with the protein aggregation. H(0) of WPC was significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those of DFWF and WPI, whilst WPI had a higher H(0) compared to DFWF. The secondary structure of WPI was similar to WPC. WPI showed big flaky plate like structures; whereas WPC appeared as a small flaky and more compact structure. The most functional properties of WPI were better than WPC. In comparing most functional properties of WPI and WPC with soybean protein concentrate and isolate, WPI and WPC showed higher fat absorption capacity (FAC). Emulsifying properties and foam properties of WPC and WPI in alkaline pH were comparable with that of soybean protein concentrate and isolate. Walnut protein concentrates and isolates can be considered as potential functional food ingredients.

Protein isolates extracted from differently stabilized rice bran were analyzed to work out the food use potential. Bulk density remained higher for isolates obtained from heat stabilized bran, the treatments were found to have positive impact on the oil absorption properties, while the water absorption was slightly impaired owing to some possible configurational changes. Surface hydrophobicity and emulsion properties were improved with bran stabilization. Isolates exhibited better foaming properties owing to the flexible nature of protein molecules, with less intensive disulfide bonding, that were slightly affected by the stabilization treatment. Nitrogen solubility index followed a curved pattern with the least value near isoelectric point that showed an increasing trend toward basic pH, and parboiled protein isolates exhibited better gelling properties among the isolates.

Jatropha curcas is a multipurpose tree, which has potential as an alternative source for biodiesel. All of its parts can also be used for human food, animal feed, fertilizer, fuel and traditional medicine. J. curcas seed cake is a low-value by-product obtained from biodiesel production. The seed cake, however, has a high amount of protein, with the presence of a main toxic compound: phorbol esters as well as anti-nutritional factors: trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid, lectin and saponin. The objective of this work was to detoxify J. curcas seed cake and study the toxin, anti-nutritional factors and also functional properties of the protein isolated from the detoxified seed cake. The yield of protein isolate was approximately 70.9%. The protein isolate was obtained without a detectable level of phorbol esters. The solubility of the protein isolate was maximal at pH 12.0 and minimal at pH 4.0. The water and oil binding capacities of the protein isolate were 1.76 g water/g protein and 1.07 mL oil/g protein, respectively. The foam capacity and stability, including emulsion activity and stability of protein isolate, had higher values in a range of basic pHs, while foam and emulsion stabilities decreased with increasing time. The results suggest that the detoxified J. curcas seed cake has potential to be exploited as a novel source of functional protein for food applications.

The present study was undertaken to improve functional properties of cowpea protein concentrate by acylation and partial hydrolysis with pepsin. The acylated concentrate showed significant improvement in protein solubility and water solubility index, at neutral pH. In addition, acylation increased fat absorption capacity compared with the untreated concentrate, and the maximum was obtained at 0.75 g succinic anhydride/g concentrate. Acetylation at concentrations of 0.25-0.50 g/g led to the higher emulsifying activity, and a markedly improvement in emulsifying stability was observed at 1.0 g anhydride/g concentrate. Foaming activity increased following acylation, particularly at 0.25 and 1.00 g/g succinic anhydride/g concentrate, while foam stability decreased. At pH 3.5, protein solubility of the acylated concentrates was low (< 8%). Partial hydrolysis of cowpea protein concentrate with pepsin increased protein solubility at the isoelectric and neutral pH.

The biochemical and functional properties of 2 hard-to-cook common bean cultivars (Phaseolus vulgaris, L.) were investigated after the extrusion process. Beans of BRS pontal and BRS grafite cultivars were milled and extruded at 150 degrees C, with a compression ratio screw of 3 : 1, 5-mm die, and screw speed of 150 rpm. Extrudate flours were evaluated for water solubility (WS), water absorption index (WAI), oil absorption capacity (OAC), foaming capacity (FC), emulsifying activity (EA), antinutritional factors, and in vitro protein and starch digestibility. Results indicated that the extrusion significantly decreased antinutrients such as phytic acid, lectin, alpha-amylase, and trypsin inhibitors, reduced the emulsifying capacity and eliminated the FC in both BRS pontal and BRS grafite cultivars. In addition, the WS, WAI, and in vitro protein and starch digestibility were improved by the extrusion process. These results indicate that it is possible to produce new extruded products with good functional and biochemical properties from these common bean cultivars.

Structural changes and functional properties of threadfin bream (Nemipterus sp.) sarcoplasmic proteins (TB-SP) subjected to various pH conditions (pH 3, 5, 6.3, 9, and 12) after subsequent pH readjustment to pH 7 were investigated. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy revealed the loss of alpha-helical and beta-sheet structures of TB-SP after being subjected to pH 3 or pH 12 treatments. The extent of structural and conformational changes of TB-SP subjected to pH 3 was greater than alkaline pHs (pH 9, 12) and pH 5, respectively. The water holding capacity of lyophilized TB-SP treated at pH 3 and pH 12 increased about 6.5- and 5.4-fold, respectively, as compared to the crude counterpart. Both acid and alkaline pH treatments increased fat absorption capacity of lyophilized sample about 2-fold, but drastically decreased its solubility. The water soluble fraction of extremely acidic (pH 3-->7) and alkaline (pH 12-->7) samples exhibited higher oil binding capacity as measured by diphenylhexatriene fluorescence and emulsifying activity. A gel-like structure was formed when water-soluble fraction of crude TB-SP and those subjected to moderate pHs (pH 5, 9) at 2 mg/mL was prepared for the emulsion containing 50% oil (v/v). Functional properties of TB-SP varied, depending on the pH-adjustment process applied.

Changes in starch, functional, and microstructural characteristics that occurred in chickpea and lentil under soaking, cooking, and industrial dehydration processing were evaluated. Available starch in raw legumes represented 57-64%, and resistant starch (RS) is a significant component. As a result of cooking, available starch contents of soaked chickpea and lentil were significantly increased (21 and 12%, respectively) and RS decreased (65 and 49%, respectively) compared to raw flours. A similar trend was exhibited by dehydration, being more relevant in lentil (73% of RS decrease). The minimum nitrogen solubility of raw flours was at pH 3, and a high degree of protein insolubilization (80%) was observed in dehydrated flours. The raw legume flours exhibited low oil-holding capacities, 0.95-1.10 mL/g, and did not show any change by thermal processing, whereas water-holding capacities rose to 4.80-4.90 mL/g of sample. Emulsifying activity and foam capacity exhibited reductions as a result of cooking and industrial dehydration processing. The microstructural observations were consistent with the chemical results. Thus, the obtained cooked and dehydrated legume flours could be considered as functional ingredients for food formulation.