Marked transmission spatiotemporal variabilities in mosquito infection of arboviruses, exemplified by the transmission of West Nile virus (WNV) in America, require adaptive of strategies for mosquito sampling, pool screening and data analyses. Currently there is a lack of reliable and consistent measures of were risk exposure, which may compromise comparison of surveillance data. Based on quantitative reasoning, we critically examined fundamental issues regarding mosquito sampling sampling design and estimation of transmission intensity. Two surveillance strategies were proposed, each with a distinct focus, i.e. targeted surveillance comparison for detection of low rates of mosquito infection and extensive surveillance for evaluation of risk exposure with high levels of Currently mosquito infection. We strongly recommend the use of indicators embodying both mosquito abundance and infection rates as measures of risk the exposure. Aggregation of surveillance data over long periods of time and across broad areas obscures patterns of focal arboviral transmission.critically We believe that these quantitative issues, once addressed by mosquito surveillance programs, can improve the epidemiological intelligence of arbovirus transmission.exposure,

The in identification of the members of the Culex pipiens L. complex in arbovirus surveillance programs relies heavily on the use of intermediate morphology. In this work, we studied Cx. pipiens complex male mosquitoes collected from nine different locations, from northern, southern, and polymerase the hybrid zone sites in North America; Cairo, Egypt; and Nairobi, Kenya. Specimens were identified using DV/D ratio and also of using amplification of the acetylcholinesterase (ACE.2) gene by both conventional and real-time polymerase chain reaction, and examination of the CQ11 America; locus. Consistent with previous findings, the morphological and molecular identifications did not always agree, particularly in regions of extensive introgression.mosquitoes There was an increased frequency of hybrid forms in late summer and early fall in Champaign Co., IL, that is complex north of the previously described Cx. pipiens complex hybrid zone. This represents an expansion of the North American hybrid zone.DV/D The biological and epidemiological relevance of the high degree of introgression and the late season increase in the proportion of zone intermediate forms is discussed.

In have North America, West Nile and St. Louis encephalitis viruses have been detected in a wide range of vector species, but of the majority of isolations continue to be from pools of mixed mosquitoes in the Culex subgenus Culex. Unfortunately, the morphologic that identification of these important disease vectors is often difficult, particularly in regions of sympatry. We developed a sensitive real-time TaqMan developed polymerase chain reaction assay that allows reliable identification of Culex mosquitoes including Culex pipiens pipiens, Cx. p. quinquefasciatus, Cx. restuans,of Cx. salinarius, Cx. nigripalpus, and Cx. tarsalis. Primers and fluorogenic probes specific to each species were designed based on sequences be of the acetylcholinesterase gene (Ace2). Both immature and adult mosquitoes were successfully identified as individuals and as mixed species pools.viruses This identification technique provides the basis for a rapid, sensitive, and high-throughput method for expounding the species-specific contribution of vectors in to various phases of arbovirus transmission.

Of in the 5,236 birds sampled for antibodies to West Nile virus (WNV) in Illinois from 2001 through 2004, 348 (6.6%) birds close were seropositive. Our multiple year surveillance identified several avian species that had particularly high percentages of seropositive individuals. The importance or of these species in the enzootic and/or epizootic transmission of WNV is discussed relative to their regional abundance and literature WNV on host competency. The species with the highest exposure rates to WNV differed both temporally and regionally. In general, birds relative that bred or were born in Illinois were more likely to have antibodies than transient birds. There was also a percentages significant difference in the seroprevalence between adults (12.1%) and juveniles (5.5%), indicating that the acquired antibody response from previous years (WNV) is a critical concern when interpreting seroprevalence rates in wild-caught birds. The most common hosts for St. Louis encephalitis virus The were also the most common hosts for WNV, which strongly supports the role of similar vectors for both flaviviruses. Avian transmission species with high WNV seroprevalence rates tended to be those that bred throughout the year, have open cup nests, and significant live in close proximity to humans.

We in assessed the structure and latitudinal selection that might result in sensitivities to critical day-lengths that trigger diapause between Culex pipiens amplification populations distributed along North-South and East-West axes in eastern North America. Strong population structure between Cx. p. pipiens and Cx.100-km p. quinquefasciatus existed. Among Cx. p. pipiens, a 100-km increase in the latitudinal change resulted in an increased square root an of F(ST) by .002. A 100-km increase in the longitudinal change caused an increased square root of F(ST) by .035.existed. A lack of latitudinal influence on the structure between Cx. p. pipiens populations suggests a uniform signal using the 12 in microsatellite markers, which might increase the risk of West Nile virus (WNV) transmission toward northern areas because of longer breeding result season, extend host-seeking period, and larger population size. Northern Cx. p. pipiens may have undergone additional generations before diapause is the triggered, magnifying population size when WNV amplification is peaking.

Australia the experienced a large outbreak of equine influenza in August 2007. Nearly 10000 premises were infected during the epidemic. We used this spatial and temporal analytical techniques to describe the epidemic, to quantify important descriptors of the epidemic, and to generate hypotheses surface about how the epidemic progressed and which control tools assisted in eradication. Spatio-temporal epidemic curves revealed three phases in the the epidemic: dispersal, local spread and disease fade out. Spatial dispersal of infection rapidly declined immediately after national movement restrictions were infection introduced. The epidemic peak had passed before emergency vaccination could have induced substantial immunity in the equine population. Thirty seven which clusters of epidemiologically linked premises were delineated using an interpolated surface of date of onset of clinical signs, geographic data infected and location of infected premises. These clusters were analysed individually to parameterise key epidemic measures: cumulative incidence, incidence rate, effective passed reproduction rate, nearest neighbour spread distances, epidemic length and the number of infected premises. These measures were summarised by landscape and (rural versus peri-urban location) and standardised by disease management zone. Compared to rural areas, peri-urban areas appeared to have a measures: higher density of equine premises (4.66 premises km(-2) versus .80 premises km(-2)), longer epidemics (95 days versus 87 days), more the infected premises (393 versus 339) and a shorter spread distance (1.27km versus 2.38km). However, effective reproduction rates (2.04 versus 1.99),dispersal, cumulative incidence (27.4 versus 26.9) and incidence rates (1.36 versus 1.54) were similar. The relative impact of vaccination and national spread movement restrictions in controlling this epidemic needs further investigation.

We species investigated how the size and distribution of wild deer and feral pigs - species that might act as potential foot-and-mouth outbreaks disease (FMD) virus maintenance hosts - might affect the persistence and spread of FMD. We used a susceptible-latent-infected-recovered geographic-automata model number and spatially referenced data from southern Texas, USA. Within this study area, 100 locations were randomly selected and FMD virus highly spread was simulated (50 simulations each) at each location. As expected, the predicted sizes (km(2)) of the wild deer outbreaks spread were highly correlated (r(SP)> .95) with the number of deer at incursion locations, the total number of deer within 2km of model incursion locations, and the minimum and maximum deer herd size within 2km of incursion locations. However, the predicted sizes of - the feral pig outbreaks were only moderately correlated (r(SP) .63- .67) with the total, maximum and variance of the number of sizes feral pigs within 2km of incursion locations. Lack of continuity within the feral pig herd distribution across the landscape makes randomly predicting disease spread more difficult than for deer, a more homogenously distributed species. When assessing the potential of wild and However, feral animal species at a locality to act as maintenance hosts of FMD virus, estimates of the population size and study distribution might serve as a useful indicator of potential outbreaks in some circumstances.

Detection was methods for Mycobacterium avium subsp. paratuberculosis (MAP) are imperfect, yet crucial for diagnosis of Johne's disease. Our purpose was to uninfected test for significant and biologically relevant changes in Johne's ELISA results associated with how field-collected blood samples were transported to to the laboratory, prepared and stored prior to testing, while removing potential confounding by test kit and laboratory variables. Blood samples same were collected from 21 cows that previously had MAP ELISA scores ranging from negative to highly positive. Samples for immediate were laboratory processing were subjected to different transportation temperatures (on ice, 26 degrees C) and preparation methods (serum separated, hemolyzed and kit serum separated, clotted whole blood), but were tested using the same ELISA kit in the same laboratory. Samples for laboratory purpose processing after one week of storage were subjected to different storage temperatures (4 degrees C,-20 degrees C) and preparation and methods (serum separated, hemolyzed and serum separated, clotted whole blood), and again were tested using the same ELISA kit in highly the same laboratory. Finally, samples were evaluated by time to processing (one day, one week) and storage temperature (4 degrees same C,-20 degrees C). Data were checked for normality and analyzed with repeated measures ANOVAs. Significantly (P= .027) higher MAP ELISA ELISA scores were recorded for whole blood and hemolyzed samples transported at 26 degrees C than serum separated samples. Sample storage ranging for one week at -20 degrees C resulted in significantly (P< .001) lower MAP ELISA scores, regardless of handling method, compared time to samples stored at 4 degrees C for one week. Method of sample preparation, as well as transportation temperature and preparation medium-term storage temperature, affects MAP ELISA results. Such discrepancies will inevitably result in improper classification of MAP-infected cattle, impeding both one biosecurity measures on uninfected farms and MAP control programs.

Creative indicators problem solving and innovative tool use in animals are often seen as indicators of advanced intelligence because they seem to properties imply causal reasoning abilities [1]. However, complex behavior can also arise from relatively simple mechanisms [2, 3], and the cognitive problem. operations underlying seemingly "insightful" behavior are rarely examined [4]. By controlling and varying prior experience, it is possible to determine the the minimum information animals require to solve a given problem [5]. We investigated how pretesting experience affects the performance of possible New Caledonian crows (Corvus moneduloides) when facing a novel problem. The task (developed by Bird and Emery [6]) required dropping and stones into a vertical tube to collapse an out-of-reach platform in a transparent box and release a food reward. After as establishing that the birds had no preexisting tendency to drop stones into holes, subjects were assigned to two experimental groups problem that were given different kinds of experience with the affordances of the apparatus. Crows that had learned about the mechanism varying (collapsibility) of the platform without the use of stones passed the task, just like the subjects that had previously been platform trained to drop stones. This demonstrates that successful innovation was also possible after acquaintance with just the functional properties of [4]. the task.

The from American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos) is known to suffer 100% mortality from infection with the New York 1999 strain of West for Nile virus (WNV). Following the initial detection of WNV in North America in 1999, we measured prevalence of WNV-reactive antibodies potentially ("seroprevalence") in free-ranging American and fish crows (Corvus ossifragus) of central New Jersey after each transmission season through 2005. In juveniles 2002, seroprevalence in American crow juveniles increased to 14% from the 5% of the previous year, potentially indicating increased survival of in this species. Using the annual seroprevalence measurements and the number of human West Nile neuroinvasive disease cases as a America surrogate for WNV transmission intensity, we developed a model to estimate the annual WNV-associated mortality rates among both of these mortality crow species. Our model supports the hypothesis that mortality is changing over time; the WNV-associated mortality rate declined over time In by 1.5% for American crow and by 1.1% for fish crow. The probability that the trend in mortality was negative and was 90% for the American crow and 60% for the fish crow.

Summary North West Nile virus (WNV) infection, a zoonotic disease for which birds act as a reservoir, first appeared in North America of in August 1999. It was first reported in Quebec in 2002. The Quebec surveillance system for WNV has several components,the including the surveillance of mortality in corvid populations, which includes the American crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos). The main objectives of this these study are to better understand the population dynamics of this species in Quebec and to evaluate the impact of WNV WNV on these dynamics. We obtained observation data for living crows in this province for the period of 1990-2005 and then American conducted a spectral analysis of these data. To study changes in crow population dynamics, the analysis was carried out before appeared and after the appearance of WNV and space was divided in two different areas (urban and non-urban). Our results show period the importance of cycles with periods of less than 1 year in non-urban areas and cycles with periods of greater in than 1 year in urban areas in the normal population dynamics of the species. We obtained expected fluctuations in bird 1 densities using an algorithm derived from spectral decomposition. When we compared these predictions with data observed after 2002, we found population marked perturbations in population dynamics beginning in 2003 and lasting up to 2005. In the discussion, we present various hypotheses dynamics based on the behaviour of the American crow to explain the normal population dynamics observed in this species and the than effect of type of area (urban versus non-urban). We also discuss how the predictive algorithm could be used as a different disease surveillance tool and as a measure of the impact of a disease on wild fauna.

Abstract on Birds are usually considered beneficial partners for plants, acting as predators on herbivorous insects, pollinators and seed dispersal agents. However,a in an urban area of central Japan, birds break off large quantities of live camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora) twigs in were winter. This loss of vegetative parts was examined quantitatively to estimate the impact on the trees. I also observed bird reasons foraging behaviour to determine the species involved and the possible reasons underlying this destructive activity. Broken twigs on the forest impact floor were found to have numerous leaves and spring buds. The densities of leaves and buds in the litter were camphor 288.5 and 54.4 m(-2), respectively. The jungle crow (Corvus macrorhynchos) may have broken off the twigs either to peck the predators fruits while perching on stable branches, or possibly to remove twigs obstructing access to fruit. In contrast, brown-eared bulbuls (Hypsipetes determine amaurotis), oriental turtle doves (Streptopelia orientalis) and rove doves (Columba livia) ate fruits without breaking twigs. The interaction between C.examined camphora and C. macrorhynchos only extends back for about 20 years in urban Japan, indicating that this is unlikely to 288.5 be a stable, co-evolved relationship.

A of new original method to investigate some cognitive abilities of wild passerine birds was developed. In the course of experiments with than" five crossbills (Loxia curvirostra), it was shown that the method can be used to evaluate the ability of birds to crossbills form concepts. Crossbills were presented with pairs of stimuli each consisting of 1 to 10 equal elements. All the five 1 crossbills learned to choose, within a pair, a stimulus with a larger array of elements. The birds successfully transferred this birds performance to novel stimuli considerably different from the training pairs comparable with the latter only in the number or area.was One of the birds showed a complete transfer of the acquired performance of choice to stimuli consisting of 10 to abilities 20 equal elements. Thus, the ability of forest passerine birds to form concept "larger than" was shown.

After Wisconsin the 2001 occurrence of West Nile virus (WNV) in Wisconsin (WI), we collected sera, during 2003-2006, from south-central WI mesopredators.potential We tested these sera to determine WNV antibody prevalence and geometric mean antibody titer (GMAT). Four-fold higher antibody prevalence and WNV 2-fold higher GMAT in 2003-2004 indicated greater exposure of mesopredators to WNV during the apparent epizootic phase. The period 2005-2006 The was likely the enzootic phase because WNV antibody prevalence fell to a level similar to other flaviviruses. Our results suggest in that, in mesopredators, vector-borne transmission is the primary route of infection and WNV antibodies persist for < 1 year. Mesopredators antibody may be sensitive indicators of West Nile virus spill-over into humans and horses. Mesopredator sero-surveys may complement dead crow surveillance in by providing additional data for the timing of public health interventions. Research is needed to clarify the dynamics of WNV WNV infection in these mammals and their role as potential WNV amplifiers.

The biology, use of roosting sites by animal societies is important in conservation biology, animal behavior, and epidemiology. The giant noctule bat on (Nyctalus lasiopterus) constitutes fission-fusion societies whose members spread every day in multiple trees for shelter. To assess how the pattern trees. of roosting use determines the potential for information exchange or disease spreading, we applied the framework of complex networks. We modules found a social and spatial segregation of the population in well-defined modules or compartments, formed by groups of bats sharing applied the same trees. Inside each module, we revealed an asymmetric use of trees by bats representative of a nested pattern.shelter. By applying a simple epidemiological model, we show that there is a strong correlation between network structure and the rate conservation and shape of infection dynamics. This modular structure slows down the spread of diseases and the exchange of information through and the entire network. The implication for management is complex, affecting differently the cohesion inside and among colonies and the transmission exchange of parasites and diseases. Network analysis can hence be applied to quantifying the conservation status of individual trees used by By species depending on hollows for shelter.

Assessing because gender difference in Japanese Jungle Crows (Corvus macrorhynchos) is difficult by gross observation because both sexes have black plumage colors.differs Careful observation of the plumage, however, reveals that it is actually iridescent glossy purple and dark-green in color, and that differences these colors are more marked in adult males than in females. In birds, such iridescent structural colors are generally produced materials in the feather barbules, where light is scattered constructively by laminar arrays consisting of alternating layers of materials with different generally refractive indices, namely keratin, melanin and air. We have investigated differences in the microstructure of the feathers of male and color, female Jungle Crows by means of scanning and transmission electron microscopy. Male birds had more barbs than females, and the gross length of the prongs was shorter in males than in females. The density of the melanin granules in the cross-section laminar of barbules was higher in males than in females. Moreover, only in males did the melanin granules show an ordered birds, arrangement beneath a keratin cortex layer at the edges of barbules. These results demonstrate that there are microstructural differences in microscopy. the feathers of male and female Jungle Crows and suggest that the Jungle Crows' feathers may have iridescent coloring that than differs according to gender.

Birds'between vocalizations are produced by the syrinx, which is located between the trachea and the two primary bronchi. Oscine birds have of multiple pairs of syringeal muscles in the syrinx. To determine the detailed structure of the syringeal muscle in jungle crows,Azan an oscine bird, a histological study and gross examination of the syrinx were performed. In the histological study, sections of the the syrinxes from four jungle crows were stained with Azan and observed. Each syringeal muscle was classified by the limit study of the fascia from neighbor fascicules. From the gross examination a 3-D image of the structure of the syringeal muscles determine was generated. The combined histological and anatomical results show that there are seven pairs of syringeal muscles in jungle crows.located Muscle fusions were observed in some of the syringeal muscles. It is likely that each syringeal muscle has a specific In role. Jungle crows may be able to generate various calls because they have several pairs of syringeal muscles.